If you have been reading about AOD-9604 and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2025-12-19. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
AOD-9604 is a synthetic peptide that corresponds to a short section of human growth hormone. It is commonly identified as hGH fragment 176-191 because its sequence matches residues at the C-terminal end of the hormone. The molecule contains sixteen amino acids and is made by solid-phase peptide synthesis. Researchers study it for metabolic effects rather than for the growth-promoting actions associated with full human growth hormone. Its small size distinguishes it from the complete 191-amino-acid hormone.
Several names appear in scientific and commercial settings. AOD9604 and AOD-9604 are development codes used interchangeably, while hGH fragment 176-191 describes the same region. The peptide includes a disulfide bond between two cysteine residues, which helps shape its three-dimensional structure. Different suppliers may provide acetate or other salt forms, and purity can vary. These differences matter because analytical tests and biological assays can respond to the specific form being studied.
Regulatory treatment of AOD-9604 has varied. In sports anti-doping, the peptide became widely discussed during a 2013 investigation into an Australian professional sports club. Authorities at the time debated whether it fell under prohibitions on growth hormone and related substances. Later clarifications and updated lists have addressed the compound in different ways. Anyone seeking current status should consult the latest applicable rules, and commercial supply for human use is not authorized in major markets.
Research interest in AOD-9604 often focuses on whether it can influence lipid metabolism without the growth-promoting or glucose-related effects of full-length hGH. This question remains unresolved, and findings depend on model, dose, and measurement method. Some reviews treat the peptide as a historical obesity candidate rather than an active therapeutic. Others cite it in discussions of peptide fragments, metabolic signaling, and performance-enhancing substances. Clear conclusions are limited by the small number of rigorous, independent human studies.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common name | AOD-9604 | Development code used in scientific literature. |
| Chemical class | Synthetic peptide | Fragment of human growth hormone. |
| Amino acid length | 16 residues | Matches hGH region 176-191. |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical lyophilized peptide solid. |
| Solubility | Soluble in water | Dissolves in aqueous media; exact behavior depends on salt form. |
AOD-9604 is a synthetic peptide whose sequence matches the C-terminal fragment of human growth hormone, specifically residues 176 through 191. This region differs from the full hormone in its receptor interactions. The peptide is not a growth hormone secretagogue and does not bind the growth hormone receptor in the same manner. Researchers have examined it for effects on lipid metabolism, but its exact pharmacological profile remains an active area of study.
Development of AOD-9604 began in the 1990s as scientists sought to isolate metabolic effects of growth hormone without its growth-promoting actions. Early laboratory work focused on fat cells and animal models. Several human trials followed, examining changes in body composition and fat mass. Results have been mixed, and the peptide has not progressed to widespread clinical approval. Interest continues in research settings, particularly regarding its mechanism and potential metabolic targets.
Regulatory status varies by country. In the United States, AOD-9604 is not approved as a prescription drug. It is sometimes sold as a research chemical or dietary supplement, though such marketing may fall outside legal frameworks. The World Anti-Doping Agency prohibits its use in sport. Researchers must obtain it through legitimate suppliers and follow institutional rules. Its legal classification continues to evolve as authorities increasingly assess peptide products more broadly.
Detection of AOD-9604 in biological samples relies on analytical techniques capable of distinguishing a small synthetic peptide from related endogenous sequences. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry is commonly used for confirmatory analysis. Sample preparation may involve immunoaffinity enrichment or solid-phase extraction to concentrate the peptide. Because the molecule is small and may be present at low concentrations, assay sensitivity and specificity are ongoing analytical challenges. Laboratories also validate methods against reference materials when available.
Regulatory interest in AOD-9604 increased after high-profile anti-doping cases involving peptide products. In some cases, the substance was supplied under alternative names or in compounded preparations, complicating traceability. Sports tribunals and anti-doping panels have discussed whether the peptide was explicitly banned at the time of use, leading to clarifications by the World Anti-Doping Agency. For consumers and researchers, the legal status can vary by jurisdiction, and products marketed as research chemicals may lack independent quality verification.
AOD-9604 is listed as a prohibited substance in sport by the World Anti-Doping Agency. It falls under the peptide hormones, growth factors, related substances, and mimetics class on the prohibited list. Anti-doping organizations treat its presence in an athlete's sample as an adverse finding unless a therapeutic use exemption applies. The prohibition reflects concerns about performance enhancement in competitive settings and the difficulty of distinguishing exogenous peptide use from endogenous hormone fragments.
Rhizopus oryzae is a filamentous heterothallic microfungus that occurs as a saprotroph in soil, dung, and rotting vegetation. This species is very similar to Rhizopus stolonifer, but it can be distinguished by its smaller sporangia and air-dispersed sporangiospores. It differs from R. oligosporus and R. microsporus by its larger columellae and sporangiospores. The many strains of R. oryzae produce a wide range of enzymes such as carbohydrate digesting enzymes and polymers along with a number of organic acids, ethanol and esters giving it useful properties within the food industries, bio-diesel production, and pharmaceutical industries. It is also an opportunistic pathogen of humans causing mucormycosis.
==== Classification outliers ==== Several side chains are not described well by the charged, polar and hydrophobic categories. Glycine (Gly, G) could be considered a polar amino acid since its small size means that its solubility is largely determined by the amino and carboxylate groups. However, the lack of any side chain provides glycine with a unique flexibility among amino acids with large ramifications to protein folding. Cysteine (Cys, C) can also form hydrogen bonds readily, which would place it in the polar amino acid category, though it can often be found in protein structures forming covalent bonds, called disulphide bonds, with other cysteines. These bonds influence the folding and stability of proteins, and are essential in the formation of antibodies. Proline (Pro, P) has an alkyl side chain and could be considered hydrophobic, but because the side chain joins back onto the alpha amino group it becomes particularly inflexible when incorporated into proteins. Similar to glycine this influences protein structure in a way unique among amino acids. Selenocysteine (Sec, U) is a rare amino acid not directly encoded by DNA, but is incorporated into proteins via the ribosome. Selenocysteine has a lower redox potential compared to the similar cysteine, and participates in several unique enzymatic reactions. Pyrrolysine (Pyl, O) is another amino acid not encoded in DNA, but synthesized into protein by ribosomes. It is found in archaeal species where it participates in the catalytic activity of several methyltransferases.
His expertise in treating children with keratoconus using CXL has led to his involvement in shaping safety standards and best practice models for treatment. Hafezi has implemented other CXL treatments in more recent times. The keratoconus treatment via pediatric application and also using CXL principles for treating infectious keratitis. Hafezi also hold two medical patents, both related to CXL technology and treatments.
=== Fibroblast-populated skin substitutes === Fibroblast-populated Skin Substitutes are scaffolds which contain fibroblasts that are able to proliferate and produce extracellular matrix and growth factors within 2 to 3 weeks. This creates a matrix similar to that of a dermis. Commercially available types are for example:
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A 2015 study concluded that minorities have been disproportionately arrested for drug offenses and the difference could not "be explained by differences in drug offending, non-drug offending, or residing in the kinds of neighborhoods likely to have heavy police emphasis on drug offending." The nature of the U.S.-sponsored war on drugs creates two dangerous consequences that often go largely unnoticed: racial profiling and irreversible harm done through legislation, both at the international and domestic spheres. With the introduction of the USA Patriot Act in October 2001 the United States appears to employ a surveillance strategy that ultimately weakens the civil rights of those affected, often through unbalanced criminal proceedings. These policies fail to acknowledge South American women's realities, which are intersectionality observed through socioeconomic positions, cultural and gender expectations, and unfamiliarity with the English language in criminal procedures Studies have shown the increase of racial profiling in Latino women as a method to deter the war on drugs, creating power imbalances as U.S. policies are pushed to national South American governments. The war on drugs has caused irreversible consequences to Latino women that should shape future understanding of the harms of racial profiling and not addressing the deeper issues of individual realities in the conflict.
==== Security and justice ==== In August 2024, Peña announced an investment of 500 million dollars to strengthen Paraguay's security and defense, with the aim of improving the operational capacity of the armed forces and the country's police forces. On 3 December 2024, President Santiago Peña enacted Law No. 7389, establishing the "National Regime of Integrity, Transparency and Prevention of Corruption" and creating the National Anti-Corruption Council, replacing the National Anti-Corruption Secretariat. This law was presented as progress in the fight against corruption in Paraguay. However, its implementation has been questioned due to the exclusion of binational entities, such as Itaipu, from oversight by bodies such as the National Directorate of Public Procurement (DNCP) and the Office of the Comptroller General of the Republic (CGR). The lack of oversight over tenders, especially in cases of alleged overbilling in the purchase of school desks and ambulances, has generated complaints of corruption and bid rigging. In addition, the amendment of Law No. 7089 on conflicts of interest, which removed restrictions on officials owning shares in companies that operate with the state, has also been controversial. A report by the United States Department of State criticized the "rampant corruption" and lack of legal certainty in the country, making foreign investment more difficult and highlighting that much remained to be done in terms of combating impunity. In April 2025, Peña signed Decree No. 3749, regulating Law No.
=== 20th century === In the 1930s, Alfred Treibs determined the biological origin of petroleum, which was previously controversial. Access to oil was a major factor in several military conflicts of the 20th century, including World War II, during which oil facilities were a major strategic asset and were extensively bombed. The German invasion of the Soviet Union included the goal to capture the Baku oilfields, as it would provide much-needed oil supplies for the German military which was suffering from blockades. Oil exploration in North America during the early 20th century led to the U.S. becoming the leading producer by mid-century. As petroleum production in the U.S. peaked during the 1960s, the United States was surpassed by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union in total output. During the 1973 oil crisis, Saudi Arabia and other Arab nations imposed an oil embargo against the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan and other Western nations which supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War. This was followed by the 1979 oil crisis, which was caused by a drop in oil production in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and caused oil prices to more than double. The two oil price shocks had many short and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy. They led to sustained reductions in demand as a result of substitution to other fuels, especially coal and nuclear, and improvements in energy efficiency, facilitated by government policies.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
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Sources: en.wikipedia.org
AOD-9604 is a synthetic peptide fragment of human growth hormone. It corresponds to the C-terminal region known as hGH 176-191 and is studied for metabolic effects. It is not an approved therapeutic drug.
No. It contains only a small portion of the human growth hormone sequence. The full hormone has 191 amino acids and many additional actions that the fragment does not share.
The name refers to the amino acid positions in the human growth hormone chain. The fragment spans residues 176 through 191 at the C-terminal end. This naming convention helps distinguish it from full-length hGH.
No major medicines regulator appears to have approved AOD-9604 for human therapeutic use. It has been studied in clinical trials, but those programs did not result in a marketed drug.