The short version of anti-doping fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
Reviewed 2026-03-16. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
AOD-9604 has been investigated primarily as a potential treatment for obesity and related metabolic conditions. Early laboratory work examined its effects on fat cells, and later studies moved into animal models and human clinical trials. Some trials reportedly reached Phase II, but the program did not lead to an approved medicine. Published summaries often note that weight-loss results were modest or inconsistent. The full trial data are not all publicly available in detail.
Regulatory treatment of AOD-9604 has varied. In sports anti-doping, the peptide became widely discussed during a 2013 investigation into an Australian professional sports club. Authorities at the time debated whether it fell under prohibitions on growth hormone and related substances. Later clarifications and updated lists have addressed the compound in different ways. Anyone seeking current status should consult the latest applicable rules, and commercial supply for human use is not authorized in major markets.
Research interest in AOD-9604 often focuses on whether it can influence lipid metabolism without the growth-promoting or glucose-related effects of full-length hGH. This question remains unresolved, and findings depend on model, dose, and measurement method. Some reviews treat the peptide as a historical obesity candidate rather than an active therapeutic. Others cite it in discussions of peptide fragments, metabolic signaling, and performance-enhancing substances. Clear conclusions are limited by the small number of rigorous, independent human studies.
Clinical development of AOD-9604 included trials in people with obesity. Reports from early-phase and mid-phase studies described modest or inconsistent changes in body weight. A phase IIb program did not meet its primary endpoint, and the compound was not approved for medical use. Differences in formulation, delivery route, and participant characteristics may explain some of the variation. Later investigations explored whether the peptide might have effects in other tissues, including cartilage.
Regulatory treatment of AOD-9604 is shaped by its classification as a peptide hormone. The World Anti-Doping Agency lists it as a prohibited substance, and many national anti-doping organizations adopt that list. It does not hold approval as a prescription medicine in the United States, the European Union, or other major markets. Products sold online are frequently labeled for research use only and may not undergo independent quality testing. Import and possession rules differ by country, so legal status depends on local law.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Primary research area | Obesity and metabolic regulation | Studied in cell, animal, and human models |
| Highest reported trial phase | Phase II | Public summaries describe mixed results |
| Common route in trials | Subcutaneous injection | Typical for peptide therapeutics |
| Regulatory example | 2013 Australian anti-doping review | Classification was debated at the time |
| Approval status | Not approved as a human medicine | Status can change by jurisdiction |
Interest in AOD-9604 arose from attempts to separate metabolic effects from growth effects attributed to hGH. Early work explored whether the fragment could influence lipolysis or fat oxidation without promoting growth. Those questions remain partly unresolved because human data are limited and results have varied across studies. The peptide is not a hormone replacement for hGH and is not equivalent to hGH in clinical use. Its research history includes both laboratory studies and commercial marketing claims that are not the same as regulatory approval.
AOD-9604 is a synthetic peptide whose structure corresponds to a C-terminal segment of human growth hormone. It is often described as hGH fragment 176-191, a 16-amino-acid sequence. The peptide was designed to isolate a region of hGH associated with fat metabolism while avoiding the full hormone's growth-promoting actions. Laboratory and commercial materials typically present it as a lyophilized powder for research use. Its identity is defined by amino acid sequence, not by a single brand.
The fragment includes residues that can form an internal disulfide bond between two cysteine positions. This structural feature can influence how the peptide folds and how stable it is in solution. AOD-9604 differs from full-length hGH in size and receptor interactions; it does not contain the entire growth hormone sequence. Published descriptions sometimes use slightly different residue numbering, so sequence information should be checked against primary sources. The molecule is small compared with intact hGH, which affects analytical detection and purification approaches.
Identity and purity are usually assessed with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Reversed-phase HPLC separates the peptide from related impurities and can estimate purity by ultraviolet absorbance, while mass spectrometry confirms the molecular mass and detects modifications. Peptide mapping, amino acid analysis, and disulfide mapping may be used when the sequence or disulfide arrangement must be verified. Because AOD9604 contains cysteine residues, oxidation and disulfide isomers are possible quality concerns in synthetic batches.
Quality varies among research-grade suppliers, so certificates of analysis and independent testing are important for verification. A typical certificate reports purity by HPLC, identity by mass spectrometry, appearance, and sometimes residual solvents or water content. AOD9604 is often sold as a research chemical not intended for human consumption, and labels can be inaccurate. Common misconceptions include treating the peptide as a form of growth hormone, assuming supplement status, or expecting approved-drug quality from unregulated products.
Nitrile können auf verschiedenen Wegen zu Iminen reduziert werden, deren Hydrolyse leicht Aldehyde ergibt. Diverse Hydride sind hierzu geeignet, wobei DIBAL bei weitem am häufigsten genutzt wird. Alternativen sind andere Aluminiumhydride, Borane sind im Allgemeinen ungeeignet. Eine klassische Methode, deren Nutzung nachgelassen hat, die aber nach wie vor eingesetzt wird, ist die Stephen-Reduktion. Dabei wird das Nitril mit Zinn(II)-chlorid und wasserfreiem Chlorwasserstoff in Diethylether zum Imin reduziert und dann hydrolysiert. Unter geeigneten Bedingungen ist auch eine Reduktion von Nitrilen zu Iminen mit Raney-Nickel als Katalysator möglich, wodurch wiederum Aldehyde zugänglich sind.
=== Carbonylierung und Formylierung === Die Hydroformylierung von Alkenen ist ein großtechnischer Prozess mit einer Produktionsmenge in der Größenordnung von 10 Millionen Tonnen pro Jahr. Dabei werden Alkene in Gegenwart eines geeigneten Katalysators mit Synthesegas (Kohlenstoffmonoxid / Wasserstoff) zu Aldehyden umgesetzt. Gängige Katalysatoren sind Cobaltcarbonylhydrid, andere verwandte Cobaltkomplexe oder Rhodium mit Triphenylphosphin.
Primäre Alkylhalogenide und Tosylate können mittels Natriumtetracarbonylferrat(II) (Collmans Reagenz) carbonyliert werden. Dabei wird zunächst der organische Rest des Edukts an den Komplex gebunden, Kohlenstoffmonoxid insertiert, das Komplexanion unter Einwirkung von Säure protoniert und ein Aldehyd freigesetzt. Eine Formylierung von aromatischen Verbindungen ist auf verschiedenen Wegen möglich. Bei der Gattermann-Synthese erfolgt die Reaktion mit Cyanwasserstoff und Chlorwasserstoff in Gegenwart einer Lewis-Säure, beispielsweise Aluminiumchlorid, ein Spezialfall der Friedel-Crafts-Acylierung. Die Cyanogruppe bildet mit Chlorwasserstoff ein Elektrophil von nicht genau bekannter Struktur und stellt das Kohlenstoffatom für die Formylgruppe zur Verfügung. Elektrophile aromatische Substitution ergibt ein Iminiumion, nach Hydrolyse entsteht ein Aldehyd. Die Formylierung von Phenolen gelingt mit Urotropin in der Duff-Reaktion, dabei entsteht zunächst ein Imin, dessen Hydrolyse dann den Aldehyd ergibt. In der Bouveault-Aldehyd-Synthese wird eine Grignard-Verbindung mit einem disubstituierten Formamid unter Bildung eines Aldehyds formyliert. Ein Beispiel ist die Umsetzung von 2-Bromtoluol über 2-Methylphenylmagnesiumbromid mit N-Methylformanilid zu 2-Methylbenzaldehyd. Eng verwandt ist die Bodroux-Tschitschibabin-Aldehydsynthese, bei der eine Grignard-Verbindung mit einem Orthoformiat umgesetzt wird.
=== Umlagerungen === Bei der Meyer-Schuster-Umlagerung werden Propargylalkohole durch Umsetzung mit einer Säure zu α,β-ungesättigten Aldehyden (im Falle eines terminalen Alkins) oder Ketonen umgelagert. Allylalkohole können mittels Chloro(cyclopentadienyl)bis(triphenylphosphin)ruthenium oder Tetrapropylammoniumperruthenat zu Aldehyden umgelagert werden. Epoxide können unter Einwirkung einer Lewis-Säure zu Aldehyden umgelagert werden (Meinwald-Umlagerung), beispielsweise 2-Phenylpropylenoxid mit Kupfer(II)-tetrafluoroborat zu 2-Phenylpropanal.
Sources: de.wikipedia.org
No major medicines regulator appears to have approved AOD-9604 for human therapeutic use. It has been studied in clinical trials, but those programs did not result in a marketed drug.
It became prominent during a 2013 Australian sports investigation that examined whether it was a prohibited growth-hormone-related substance. Subsequent interpretations and list updates have varied, so current rules should be checked directly.
Published summaries generally report limited or inconsistent weight-loss effects, and complete trial data are not widely available. The studies were not sufficient to establish it as an effective obesity treatment.
No. Major drug regulators have not approved AOD-9604 for weight loss or any other therapeutic indication. It remains an investigational compound studied in research settings.